Acid - Base Titration

http://learningsupport.akueb.edu.pk/video_open.php?lec=Acid%20-%20base%20titration

Law Of Mass Action And Equilibrium Constant Expression

http://learningsupport.akueb.edu.pk/video_open.php?lec=Law%20of%20mass%20action%20and%20equilibrium%20constant%20expression

EXTRACTION OF IRON
http://www.citycollegiate.com/extraction_iron.htm

extraction of iron

to see complete presentation please click below link

http://www.slideshare.net/sarbjitarora/extraction-of-iron

composition of urea

Urea & Chemical Fertilizers

Urea (N 46%) is an organic compound with the chemical formula (NH2)2CO. Urea is also known by the International Non proprietary Name (rINN) carbamide, as established by the World Health Organization. For example, the medicinal compound hydroxyurea (old British Approved Name) is now hydroxycarbamide. Other names include carbamide resin, isourea, carbonyl diamide, and carbonyldiamine We are buyers/ sellers of urea. Only genuine urea buyers need to contact.

Urea

Urea is used as a nitrogen-release fertilizer, as it hydrolyses back to ammonia and carbon dioxide, but its most common impurity, biuret, must be present at less than 2%, as it impairs plant growth. It is also used in many multi-component solid fertilizer formulations. Its action of nitrogen release is due to the conditions favouring the reagent side of the equilibrium, which produce urea. Because of the high nitrogen concentration in urea, it is very important to achieve an even spread. The application equipment must be correctly calibrated and properly used. Drilling must not occur on contact with or close to seed, due to the risk of germination damage. Urea dissolves in water for application as a spray or through irrigation systems. We can supply urea in large quantities Genuine buyers only contact. Also we can supply NPK compound ferlizers as per customer requirements in bulk Product: UREA N-46% Grade: Agricultural Empirical Formula: H2N-CO-NH2 Product use: Fertilizer SPECIFICATIONS OF UREA: Specification: N 46% Nitrogen: 46% minimum Moisture: 0.3% max. Free Ammonia: 160 PXT PPM maximum Biuret: 1% maximum Prill: 95% max; Harmful Substances: 100% free from harmful substances Melting Point: 132 degrees Celsius Granulation: 1-4 mm; 90% minimum Colour: Pure White Odour: Odourless Boiling: Decomposes before boiling Radiation: Non radioactive; Free flowing, treated against caking Physical State: Solid @ 20°C, 101 KPA white granules Specific Gravity: Solid @ 20°C, - 1.335 t/m³ Floatability in Water:Sinks and Mixes Molecular Weight: 60.065

solvay process

fractional distilation

Fractional Distillation

The various components of crude oil have different sizes, weights and boiling temperatures; so, the first step is to separate these components. Because they have different boiling temperatures, they can be separated easily by a process called fractional distillation. The steps of fractional distillation are as follows:

1. You heat the mixture of two or more substances (liquids) with different boiling points to a high temperature. Heating is usually done with high pressure steam to temperatures of about 1112 degrees Fahrenheit / 600 degrees Celsius.
2. The mixture boils, forming vapor (gases); most substances go into the vapor phase.
3. The vapor enters the bottom of a long column (fractional distillation column) that is filled with trays or plates. The trays have many holes or bubble caps (like a loosened cap on a soda bottle) in them to allow the vapor to pass through. They increase the contact time between the vapor and the liquids in the column and help to collect liquids that form at various heights in the column. There is a temperature difference across the column (hot at the bottom, cool at the top).
4. The vapor rises in the column.
5. As the vapor rises through the trays in the column, it cools.
6. When a substance in the vapor reaches a height where the temperature of the column is equal to that substance's boiling point, it will condense to form a liquid. (The substance with the lowest boiling point will condense at the highest point in the column; substances with higher boiling points will condense lower in the column.).
7. The trays collect the various liquid fractions.
8. The collected liquid fractions may pass to condensers, which cool them further, and then go to storage tanks, or they may go to other areas for further chemical processing

Fractional distillation is useful for separating a mixture of substances with narrow differences in boiling points, and is the most important step in the refining process.

The oil refining process starts with a fractional distillation column. On the right, you can see several chemical processors that are described in the next section.

Very few of the components come out of the fractional distillation column ready for market. Many of them must be chemically processed to make other fractions. For example, only 40% of distilled crude oil is gasoline; however, gasoline is one of the major products made by oil companies. Rather than continually distilling large quantities of crude oil, oil companies chemically process some other fractions from the distillation column to make gasoline; this processing increases the yield of gasoline from each barrel of crude oil.

In the next section, we'll look at how we chemically process one fraction into another.

to see the animation please click on the blow link
http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/energy/oil-refining4.htm

solvey process

Properties and Uses of Sodium Carbonate

Sodium carbonate, Na₂CO₃, dissolves in water to form an alkaline solution.

Used as a base, sodium carbonate is cheaper and safer than sodium hydroxide.

Uses of Sodium Carbonate
Use	Process Notes
Glass Making	A mixture of Na2CO3, CaCO3 and SiO2 (silicon dioxide sand) is used for window or bottle glass.
Water Softening Agent	CO32- from dissolved Na2CO3 can precipitate Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions from hard water as the insoluble carbonates, preventing them from forming a precipitate with soap resulting in scum. For this reason, sodium carbonate is also known as washing soda.
Paper Making	Na2CO3 is used to produce the NaHSO3 necessary for the sulfite method of separating lignin from cellulose.
Baking Soda Production	Baking soda (or sodium hydrogen carbonate or sodium bicarbonate), NaHCO3, is used in food preparation and in fire extinguishers.
Sodium Hydroxide Production for Soaps and Detergents	Na2CO3 is reacted with a Ca(OH)2, slaked lime, suspension.
Wool Processing	Na2CO3 removes grease from wool and neutralises acidic solutions.
Power Generation	Na2CO3 is used to remove SO2(g) from flue gases in power stations.

Solvay Process

The Solvay Process for the production of sodium carbonate is summarised in the flowchart below:

brine NaCl(aq)			----->	ammoniated brine		<-----	ammonia NH3
				| |			/\ |
limestone CaCO3				| | | |	NaCl H2O NH3		| | | |	NH3
| | \/				| | | \/			| | | |
lime kiln			CO2 ----->	carbonating tower			| | |
H2O	| CaO			| \/			| |
| \/	| \/			filter |	NH4Cl --------->		ammonia recovery
lime slaker		Ca(OH)2 ------------|--------------->
				| | \/			| \/
				product NaHCO3			by-product CaCl2
				| 300oC | \/
				product Na2CO3

1. Brine Purification

   
   Brine is concentrated by evaporation to atleast 30%
   Impurities such as calcium, magnesium and iron are removed by precipitation, eg,
   Ca²⁺_(aq) + CO₃^2-_(aq) -----> CaCO_3(s)
   Mg²⁺_(aq) + 2OH^-_(aq) -----> Mg(OH)_2(s)
   Fe³⁺_(aq) + 3OH^-_(aq) -----> Fe(OH)_3(s)
   Brine solution is then filtered and passed through an ammonia tower to dissolve ammonia.
   This process is exothermic, releases energy, so the ammonia tower is cooled.

2. Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate Formation

   
   Carbon dioixide is produced by the thermal decomposition of limestone, CaCO_3(s), in the lime kiln:
   CaCO_3(s) -----> CO_2(g) + CaO_(s)
   Carbon dioxide is bubbled through the ammoniated brine solution in the carbonating tower.
   The carbon dioxide dissolves to form a weak acid:
   CO_2(g) + H₂O_(l)  HCO₃^-_(aq) + H⁺_(aq)
   The ammonia in the brine reacts with H⁺ to form ammonium ions:
   NH_3(aq) + H⁺_(aq)  NH₄⁺_(aq)
   The HCO₃^- then reacts with the Na⁺ to form a suspension of sodium hydrogen carbonate:
   HCO₃^-_(aq) + Na⁺_(aq)  NaHCO_3(s)
   NaHCO₃ precipitates because of the large excess of Na⁺ present in the brine which forces the equilibrium position to shift to the right by Le Chatelier's Principle (NaHCO₃ is quite soluble in water).
   The overall molecular equation for the formation of sodium hydrogen carbonate in the carbonating tower is:
   NH_3(aq) + CO_2(g) + NaCl_(aq) + H₂O_(l) -----> NaHCO_3(s) + NH₄Cl_(aq)
   The net ionic equation for the formation of sodium hydrogen carbonate in the carbonating tower is:
   NH_3(aq) + CO_2(g) + Na⁺_(aq) + H₂O_(l) -----> NaHCO_3(s) + NH₄⁺_(aq)
   where Cl^- is a spectator ion

3. Sodium Carbonate Formation

   
   Suspended sodium hydrogen carbonate is removed from the carbonating tower and heated at 300^oC to produce sodium carbonate:
   2NaHCO_3(s) -----> Na₂CO_3(s) + CO_2(g) + H₂O_(g)
   The carbon dioxide produced is recycled back into the carbonating tower.

4. Ammonia Recovery

   
   CaO is formed as a by-product of the thermal decomposition of limestone in the lime kiln.
   This CaO enters a lime slaker to react with water to form calcium hydroxide:
   CaO_(s) + H₂O_(l) -----> Ca(OH)_2(aq)
   The calcium hydroxide produced here is reacted with the ammonium chloride separated out of the carbonating tower by filtration:
   Ca(OH)_2(aq) + 2NH₄Cl_(aq) -----> CaCl_2(aq) + 2H₂O_(l) + 2NH_3(g)
   The ammonia is recycled back into the process to form ammoniated brine.
   Calcium chloride is formed as a by-product of the Solvay Process.

Environmental Issues

1. Solid Wastes

   Calcium chloride, CaCl₂, is a by-product of the Solvay Process.
   There are a limited number of uses for CaCl₂:
       - drying agent in industry
       - de-icing roads
       - an additive in soil treatment
       - an additive in concrete
   The rest must be disposed of either by pumping out to sea, or by evaporating to dryness and disposing of the solid.
   CaCl₂ can not be pumped into rivers or lakes because it will raise the concentration of chloride ion to unacceptable levels.Other solid wastes include unburnt calcium carbonate, sand and clay from the kiln. It is possible that these could be used to make bricks, landfill or road base.
   

2. Air Pollution

   Some ammonia is lost to the atmosphere during the Solvay Process. Ammonia is a toxic atmospheric pollutant.
   Ammonia losses are minimised to reduce plant operation costs.

3. Thermal Pollution

   Some of the processes involved in the Solvay Process are exothermic, they release heat.
   Near the ocean, water used during the cooling processes can be released into the sea without causing disruption to aquatic organisms.
   Inland plants need to either release heated water slowly into rivers or lakes or cool the water first before releasing in order to prevent disruption to aquatic organisms.